關於如何使用「引述動詞」,這裡有一些文法句型可供參考模仿: 句型 1:reporting verb (引述動詞) + that + subject (主詞) + verb (動詞) *acknowledge, admit, agree, allege, argue, assert, assume, believe, claim, conclude, consider, decide, demonstrate, deny, determine, discover, doubt, emphasize, explain, find, hypothesize, imply, indicate, infer, note, object, observe, point, out, prove, reveal, say, show, state, suggest, think a. Smith argued that X influences Y. b. Previous researchers have implied that the procedure is harmful. c. Smith found that X’s are improved by class factors. d. Lee inferred that both states are vital.
小心使用動詞discuss或express與that 連接的用法,請參考下列的例子。 錯誤:The reviewer expressed that the movie is not worth seeing. (X) 正確:The reviewer expressed the view that the movie is not worth seeing. (O)
注意:這個類別的動詞也可能出現於以As為開頭的從屬子句。 a. As Smith demonstrated, errors made by previous researchers need to be corrected. b. As researchers have shown, the procedure is harmful.
句型 2:reporting verb (引述動詞) + somebody/something (某人/某事) + for + noun/gerund (名詞/動名詞) *applaud, blame, censure, criticize, disparage, fault, praise, ridicule, single out, thank a. Smith criticized Jones for his use of incomplete data (OR for using incomplete data). b. Both Smith and Jones condemned previous researchers for misrepresenting the data. c. Lee acknowledged Thomas for his contribution to the discovery of X.
句型3:reporting verb (引述動詞) + somebody/something (某人/某事) + as + noun/gerund/adjective (名詞/動名詞形容詞)*appraise, assess, characterize, class, classify, define, depict, describe, evaluate, identify, interpret, portray, present, refer, view a. Jones described the findings as adding to the existing body of research. b. Smith identified the Y as a source of information. c. Smith and Jones both presented their results as conclusive.
是限定或不限定的? 若一個名詞是限定的(應使用定冠詞),表示句中所指涉的事物是名詞所代表的群體或整體中特定的一部份,否則應使用不定冠詞。 通常而言,第一次提及一個名詞時,該名詞是非限定的,之後提及則是限定的,使用定冠詞。
範例:When I first started writing, I had a fear of English. I
conquered the fear by continuing to write.
上述第一個句子,建立了一個特定的fear(恐懼),在第二句中再出現時,讀者已經知道作者是指涉何種特定的fear。 若讀者能從上下文或其他資訊來源得知句中的名詞是指涉特定事物,就直接使用定冠詞。
範例:The reason we wrote the paper is to make sure we are
acknowledged for the research we completed.
句中前段reason後的介詞片語(we wrote the
paper)已經顯示出名詞reason所指涉的事物是非常特定的,也可同時推測出後段中的名詞research同樣指涉為the
paper所進行的特定研究,因此兩個名詞均為限定,使用定冠詞。
一旦上述三個問題都已經得到明確的答案,便能使用以下表格來判定使用何種冠詞。(符號※表示不需使用冠詞) 【Countable】
Singular Definite
the -- I need to finish the paper I am submitting to Applied
Mechanics.
Singular Indefinite
a/ an -- I have a paper to write this summer.
Plural Definite
the -- The papers I wrote last year were all published.
Plural Indefinite
※Writing papers are a necessity for academic survival.
【Uncountable】
singular Definite
the -- The importance of publishing cannot be exaggerated.
singular Indefinite
※Do not attach importance to memorizing facts.
利用名詞的物件類別判斷冠詞
名詞有時指涉一整個群體的相似事物,稱為類別。指涉類別性的事物,通常有三種用法:(1)
限定單數;(2) 非限定單數;(3) 非限定複數。 範例: 1. The researcher is as important member of society.
第一個例句提出一名特定的researcher來代表全體,並以全體為對象進行描述。 2. Being a researcher is a challenging job.
第二個例句,則是指涉整個群體中任何一個researcher個體、全體researcher均適用。 3. Researchers help society progress. 在第三個例句中,語意則直接指涉整個researcher的群體。
指涉專有名詞時的冠詞
上述表格中的法則並不是放諸四海皆準,尤其是文章指涉專有名詞的時候。然而,大部份專有名詞的冠詞都能以簡單的原則判斷。 舉例而言: 人名前面不需要使用冠詞。
範例:Barak Obama is the president of the United States.
大部分的國家名字都不需要使用冠詞,但有兩個國家例外:the
United States以及the United
Kingdom。 河流、山脈及海洋的名字前面要使用定冠詞,例如:揚子江the
Yangtze River、喜馬拉雅山脈 the Himalaya Mountains、印度洋
the Indian Ocean、南中國海 the South China
Sea;而湖泊卻是例外,通常不使用定冠詞,如:蘇必利爾湖Lake
Superior、密西根湖 Lake Michigan等。
實際上關於定冠詞the的用法,還有一些其他的特殊情況。 要判斷決定是否該使用the,可以試問自己以下三個問題: 1. 這個名詞為非限定名詞或限定名詞嗎? 一般規則為名詞被首次提及時為非限定名詞,後續所有提及前述事物的名詞為限定名詞,應使用定冠詞the。 範例:A man is standing beside a tree. There is a dog beside the man. 第二次提及時,可能是前述名詞的同義字。 範例:Combine sugar, butter and eggs. Add flour to the mixture. 首次提及時,名詞搭配不定冠詞a或an使用,複數或不可數名詞不需使用冠詞。第二次提及時,可數或不可數名詞搭配定冠詞the使用都是正確的。 範例:A growing plant must have water and minerals. The plant must also have sunlight. The minerals must include nitrates and the water must not be saline.
此外,有三組是當特殊的名詞類別被視為限定的引用,即使是它們沒有在前面的句子或子句中被提到。
第一組:包括用來提及某情況或情境中共有知識的名詞。例如,在台灣你可以說: 範例:The President will arrive tomorrow. 以上句為例,在臺灣我們只有一個總統,因此可以清楚地表達你所要指稱的對象。 在同樣類似的情況中,如果這個小鎮裡只有一所大學,那你可以說:範例:He’s been working in the university for two years. 但當你身處台北時,因為當地有許多的大學,因此在此情況不能用the。你將必須在首次提及時,指出特定大學的名稱。 範例:He’s been working at National Taiwan University for two years. He says the university has beautiful trees.
第二組:其包括用來提及專有名詞或獨特事物的名詞。 範例:the sun/ the earth/ the pope/ the sky/ the equator [註]我們通常將泛指「天空物體」的第一個字母大寫, 例如:the Milky Way、Mars、Saturn。 然而,對於earth、moon、sun我們不會大寫第一個字母,除非當這三個名稱與「天空物體」的名稱同時出現時,我們會將第一個字母全部大寫處理。 範例:I like it here on earth, but it is further from Earth to Mars than it is from Mercury to the Sun.
第三組:是由最高級形容詞及獨特形容詞所組成的。因為搭配這類形容詞的名詞僅只一個,只能有一個最高、最好或最棒的事物,因此它們可以搭配定冠詞使用。 範例:Taipei is the most populous city in Taiwan. 範例:He enjoyed the first part, but he was disappointed at the end.範例:She is the first author on the paper.
2. 這個名詞為被修飾名詞嗎? 如果名詞前面帶有以下字詞:this、that、these、those、some、any、each、every、no、none、my、mine,則不使用定冠詞。 範例:the blue books, some blue books, no blue book, his blue books, each blue book 如果名詞後面接著獨立子句(who/ which/ that)或是介係詞片語(of/ in/ to... ),名詞則為限定名詞,應搭配使用定冠詞。 範例:The man who lives next door is from Taiwan. 範例:We take the library for granted. 範例:The trip to Tainan takes four hours by train. [例外] 集體名詞與不定冠詞搭配使用。 範例:a box of candy/ a deck of cards/ a bar of soap/ a flock of birds.
3. 這個名詞為總稱性名詞嗎? 「總稱Generic」的使用時機為,當你提及一整個團體或類別,用來概括團體內的所有可能成員。以下提供五個使用句型: a. 無冠詞 + 複數可數名詞 (最常出現於口語英語) 範例:It’s amazing what researchers can do. b.無冠詞 + 不可數名詞 範例:Writing can be a lot of trouble. c.不定冠詞 + 單數可數名詞 範例:It’s amazing what a researcher can do. d.定冠詞 + 單數可數名詞(經常用於學術寫作上) 範例:It’s astonishing what the researcher can do. e.定冠詞 + 複數國籍名詞 範例:The Chinese have an ancient culture.
冠詞的特殊用法
a.媒體及通訊 使用名詞加上定冠詞來指稱通訊系統及大眾傳媒,其代表意義與實際所指的通訊機器不同。 範例:The telephone is the system of communication; a telephone is the actual physical machine. 範例:The newspapers are all in agreement on the latest financial disaster. b.交通工具 使用定冠詞指稱整個交通系統,而非個別的運輸工具。 範例:How long does it take on the bus? 範例:The train is quicker than the bus. [註] 如果你要使用by加上某種交通工具,則不用搭配任何冠詞。 範例:I go by train. c.娛樂形式 (1) 指稱一般的娛樂形式時,與定冠詞搭配使用。 範例:I enjoy seeing the movies. (2) 指稱特定的事件時,使用不定冠詞。 範例:I saw a good show last night. d.活動的地方/事物名詞 某些名詞是用來指稱任一個地方/事物或活動,當名詞用來指稱活動時,不使用定冠詞。 *活動 Activity I go to bed at 11 o’clock. She went to school for many years. Many families eat dinner together. I shower before breakfast. They are at school. She is in class. *事物 Object Don’t jump on the bed. The room was too small. The meal was delicious. The lunch was delicious. The college is very old. The class is in building 105. e.方向 指稱方向的名詞,不使用定冠詞。 範例:Go two blocks south and turn left. f.一段時間 十年、世紀和歷史時期的名稱,應與定冠詞搭配使用,因為它們是特殊提及的一種形式。 範例:The 1950s were a time of rapid technological progress.